Stereotype threat

Stereotype threat is the risk of confirming a negative stereotype about a group to which one belongs. Claude Steele introduced this idea in 1995. Stereotype threat may reduce the performance of people who belong to a negatively stereotyped group.[1]

Steele and Aronson

Claude Steele and Joshua Aronson did research for this theory of social psychology. They had African-American and European-American college students take a difficult verbal portion of the Graduate Record Examination. The design was a 2x3 factorial. The factors were the race of the participant (black or white) and the test description (diagnostic of intelligence, non diagnostic, or non diagnostic and challenging). Performance on the test was the dependent variable. 117 male and female participants were recruited from Stanford University. After comparing the results of the three groups, it was found that the differences were not very significant. However, in their second study results were significant.[1]

Supporting studies

A study on chess players shows that if females are made aware of the stereotype that females are worse at chess than males, they perform worse than the controls.[2] Stone, Lynch, Sjomeling, & Darley did experiments in which white men performed poorly in sports if they are put in the condition that described the task as reflecting natural athletic ability compared to African-Americans. The African-Americans performed worse when the task was described as involving intelligence of the sport.[3] Yeung & von Hippel did an experiment in which two groups of women went through a driving simulation. They told the women in the stereotype threat group that they were investigating why men were better drivers than women. That group was twice more likely than the control to hit a pedestrian.[4]

Effects

Stereotype lift can increase a person's performance on a task when he/she is exposed to a negative stereotype of a group to which he/she does not belong.[5]

Stereotype boost can increase an individual's performance on a task when he/she is exposed to a positive stereotype about his/her group.[6]

Stereotype threat can have a bad effect on people. It has a negative effect on performance. It can also cause individuals to distance themselves from the stereotyped group to which they belonged, or lead them to dis-identify with the group that they experience stereotype threat. For example, a woman sees herself as "not a math person".[7][8]

A simple way to stop these negative consequences is to tell people about stereotype threat.[9]

Long-term effects

If a person experiences stereotype threat many times, it can have long-term effects. Over time, repeated stress and negative experiences may influence important life choices.[10]

One possible outcome is called domain disidentification.[11] This happens when a person begins to distance themselves from an area where they feel threatened. For example, a student may decide that subjects like mathematics or science are “not for them”.

By losing interest in the subject, the person protects their self-esteem. However, this can also reduce motivation to continue in that area.[12]

As a result, stereotype threat may contribute to lower participation of some groups in certain fields, such as engineering, science, or medicine.[13]

Reducing stereotype threat

Some studies show that stereotype threat can be reduced. Researchers have tested different ways to help people perform better when they feel this kind of pressure.[14]

One common method is giving people role models from their own group.[15] Seeing someone similar succeed can reduce worry about stereotypes. Another method is helping people feel that they belong in a school or work environment.[16] This can make them less anxious and more confident.

Some strategies focus on how people think about themselves. For example, asking people to think about their important values (called self-affirmation) can improve performance.[17] Teaching that abilities can grow with practice can also help.[18]

A large review of many studies found that these methods can improve performance. It also found that changing beliefs about stereotypes or the environment works better than only helping people cope with stress.[19]

How to stop it

Researchers in social psychology have found several ways to reduce stereotype threat and help people perform better.[20]

One method is informing people about stereotype threat. When individuals understand that their anxiety comes from a social effect and not from lack of ability, they may feel less pressure and perform better.[21]

Another method is self-affirmation. This involves asking people to think about their important values, such as family, friendships, or personal goals. This can increase confidence and reduce the impact of negative stereotypes.[22]

Role models can also help. Seeing people from the same group succeed in a field can reduce feelings of threat.[23]

Some strategies also focus on creating a sense of belonging. When people feel accepted in an environment, they are less likely to feel stereotype threat.[24]

Overall, these methods aim to reduce anxiety, improve confidence, and allow people to perform closer to their true ability.[25]

References

  1. 1 2 Steele, Claude M. (1997). "A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance". American Psychologist 52 (6): 613–629
  2. ↑ Daisy Grewal (15 April 2014). "Are Girls Bad at Chess?". Scientific American website. Retrieved 26 April 2014.
  3. ↑ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2014-01-31. Retrieved 2013-12-06.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  4. ↑ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2014-01-31. Retrieved 2013-12-06.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  5. ↑ Walton, G. M.; Cohen, G. L. (2003). "Stereotype lift". Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 39 (5): 456–467. doi:10.1016/S0022-1031(03)00019-2
  6. ↑ Shih, M. J.; Pittinsky, T.L.; Ho, G. C. (2012). "Stereotype boost: Positive outcomes from the activation of positive stereotypes". In Inzlicht, M.; Schmader, T. Stereotype Threat: Theory, Process, and Application. Oxford University Press. pp. 141–156. ISBN 0199732442.
  7. ↑ Cohen, Geoffrey L.; Garcia, Julio (2008). "Identity, Belonging, and Achievement: A Model, Interventions, Implications". Current Directions in Psychological Science 17 (6): 365–369. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2008.00607.x. ISSN 0963-7214.
  8. ↑ Steele, Jennifer; James, Jacquelyn B.; Barnett, Rosalind Chait (2002). "Learning in a Man's World: Examining the Perceptions of Undergraduate Women in Male-Dominated Academic Areas". Psychology of Women Quarterly 26 (1): 46–50. doi:10.1111/1471-6402.00042. ISSN 0361-6843.
  9. ↑ Johns M, Schmader T, Martens A (March 2005). "Knowing is half the battle: teaching stereotype threat as a means of improving women's math performance". Psychological Science 16 (3): 175–9. doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.00799.x. PMID 15733195.
  10. ↑ Steele, C. M. (1997). American Psychologist.
  11. ↑ Steele, C. M. (1997). American Psychologist.
  12. ↑ Steele, C. M. (1997). American Psychologist.
  13. ↑ Schmader, T., Johns, M., & Forbes, C. (2008). Psychological Review.
  14. ↑ Liu, S., Liu, P., Wang, M., & Zhang, B. (2021). Effectiveness of stereotype threat interventions: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Applied Psychology.
  15. ↑ Marx, D. M., & Roman, J. S. (2002). Female role models: Protecting women’s math test performance. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(9), 1183–1193.
  16. ↑ Walton, G. M., & Cohen, G. L. (2011). A brief social-belonging intervention improves academic outcomes. Science, 331(6023), 1447–1451.
  17. ↑ Cohen, G. L., Garcia, J., Apfel, N., & Master, A. (2006). Reducing the racial achievement gap: A social-psychological intervention. Science, 313(5791), 1307–1310.
  18. ↑ Aronson, J., Fried, C. B., & Good, C. (2002). Reducing the effects of stereotype threat on African American college students by shaping theories of intelligence. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38(2), 113–125.
  19. ↑ Liu, S., Liu, P., Wang, M., & Zhang, B. (2021). Journal of Applied Psychology.
  20. ↑ Liu, S., Liu, P., Wang, M., & Zhang, B. (2021). Effectiveness of stereotype threat interventions: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Applied Psychology.
  21. ↑ Johns, M., Schmader, T., & Martens, A. (2005). Knowing is half the battle: Teaching stereotype threat as a means of improving performance. Psychological Science, 16(3), 175–179.
  22. ↑ Cohen, G. L., Garcia, J., Apfel, N., & Master, A. (2006). Reducing the racial achievement gap: A social-psychological intervention. Science, 313(5791), 1307–1310.
  23. ↑ Marx, D. M., & Roman, J. S. (2002). Female role models: Protecting women’s math test performance. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(9), 1183–1193.
  24. ↑ Walton, G. M., & Cohen, G. L. (2011). A brief social-belonging intervention improves academic outcomes. Science, 331(6023), 1447–1451.
  25. ↑ Liu, S., Liu, P., Wang, M., & Zhang, B. (2021). Journal of Applied Psychology.
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